胰十二指肠切除术后出血的治疗决策及预防措施

摘要:胰十二指肠切除术后出血(post pancreaticoduodenectomy hemorrhage,PPH)是胰十二指肠切除术后最常见也是最严重的并发症之一,其发生率较高,发生时间不定,处理十分棘手,病死率较高,是胰腺外科医师的噩梦。PPH的发生严重影响患

文章来源:中华普通外科杂志, 2023, 38(5)

摘要

胰十二指肠切除术后出血(post pancreaticoduodenectomy hemorrhage,PPH)是胰十二指肠切除术后最常见也是最严重的并发症之一,其发生率较高,发生时间不定,处理十分棘手,病死率较高,是胰腺外科医师的噩梦。PPH的发生严重影响患者预后生存,对其正确的认知和处理尤为重要,应秉承“预防为主、源头控制、早期发现、早期治疗”的原则。本文通过梳理PPH相关的循证医学依据,分析各类初始治疗方案的优劣性。对于早期PPH,应以手术治疗为主;对于迟发性PPH,应以介入治疗为主,手术的作用仍不能替代。对于前哨出血,应立刻采取干预措施。发生PPH行再手术止血时,手术方式应本着“胆胰分流”的目的和“损伤控制”的原则酌情处理。认识及制定正确的治疗决策能够显著提高干预PPH的成功率;同时,优化PPH的预防措施能有效降低PPH的发生率,这些对改善患者预后均具有重要而现实的意义。

胰十二指肠切除术(pancreaticoduodenectomy,PD)是腹部外科最大的手术之一,其风险高,难度大,操作复杂,被誉为“王冠上的明珠”。胰十二指肠切除术后出血(post pancreaticoduodenectomy hemorrhage,PPH)是PD术后最常见也是最严重的并发症之一,其发生率高,发生时间不定,处理十分棘手,病死率高。国内外PPH发生率的置信范围较大,多数为10%以下[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8],随着外科技术的进步与围手术期处理PPH水平的提高,2000年后PPH的发生率略有下降。鉴于世界范围内各医疗机构之间外科技术与围手术期管理水平的参差不齐,导致大部分医疗机构PPH总病死率仍居高不下,在15%~30%水平[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8],发达国家例如德国和法国PPH的死亡率甚至能高达30%[1,5]。PPH的发生率和死亡率的“双高”更能说明将高风险的PD集中于技术成熟、经验丰富的大型胰腺中心开展是胰腺外科的发展趋势,也是降低PPH的有效策略[8, 9]。

2007年国际胰腺外科研究小组(International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery,ISGPS)依据出血时间、出血部位和严重程度定义了PPH三要素,其中:(1)出血时间:分为早期出血(术后24 h内)或迟发性出血(术后24 h后);(2)出血部位:分为消化道出血和腹腔出血;(3)根据出血时间、出血部位和严重程度,PPH设定为三个等级:A级对患者术后恢复影响小;B级往往改变临床治疗决策;C级情况危急,严重威胁患者生命。PPH的发生严重影响患者预后生存。本文通过梳理PPH相关的循证医学依据,旨在探讨PPH的治疗决策,特别是初始治疗方案及预防措施,对于减少PPH发生率,提高患者总生存率具有重要的临床意义。

一、PPH的治疗决策

(一)早期PPH的治疗决策

早期出血(24 h内)的原因多为技术层面或凝血功能障碍。高体量、大型胰腺中心的PPH发生率显著低于低体量、小型胰腺中心[8]。对于早期出血,前期研究结果较为混乱,腹腔出血下的手术治疗和消化道出血下的内镜治疗均作为推荐,而2000年后国内外研究均推荐初始治疗应以手术为主。笔者同样认为,早期出血如果是腹腔出血或混合出血,初始应为手术治疗;但如果是消化道出血,应首先考虑胰腺断面、胰肠/胆肠吻合口出血(约占早期PPH消化道出血的100%[10]、62.3%[2]、58.3%[5]),不应简单判断为胃肠吻合口出血和应激性溃疡。有研究显示PPH的早期消化道出血,62.3%(33/53)是胰肠吻合口出血,其中32.1%的患者初始胰肠吻合口出血以消化道出血的方式展现,随后又出现了腹腔出血[2]。胰肠吻合口出血量大的情况下,由于空肠输入襻内充满血块,加上解剖结构的改变,内镜极难到达吻合口或无法发现出血部位,治疗成功率较低[2,5,11]。文献报道内镜治疗成功率仅为32%[5]、20%[2]甚至9%[11];消化道出血量大时,无全身麻醉气管插管下行内镜检查的患者极易出现反流误吸[5]。另外,早期胰肠-胆肠吻合口是机械应力愈合,内镜检查中肠管过度充气可能存在胰肠-胆肠吻合口裂开导致吻合口漏的潜在风险[5]。

从2000年后国内外真实世界研究中对早期PPH的治疗可以看出(表1),早期PPH的外科处理一定要及时。虽然短期内非计划再手术对患者造成了一定的创伤,但只要能发现出血点并确切缝扎止血,则止血效果均十分显著,预后较好,死亡率较低[3,5, 6, 7,10,12, 13]。如果是单纯消化道出血,内镜检查和治疗也是一个可选项,应在全身麻醉气管插管下进行操作。

(二)迟发性PPH的治疗决策

迟发性PPH有独特的病理生理过程,笔者将之形象归纳为“枪击理论”:其中胰液是弹头,胆汁/肠液的激活是底火,腹腔感染是扳机,出血是发射子弹,击中毗邻易感动脉。以上渐进的病理生理步骤缺一不可,术中动脉骨骼化与淋巴结清扫的过程易导致动脉壁外膜或肌层损伤,若再同时合并受损血管附近的胰(胆)瘘及腹腔感染,裸化的血管很容易因此受侵蚀而破裂,PPH最常见的“责任血管”依次是胃十二指肠动脉(26%)、肝总动脉及分支(24%)、脾动脉及分支(11%)、肠系膜上动脉及分支(7%)、其他血管(21%)以及未知来源(11%)[14, 15, 16]。其中被激活的胰液是“万恶之源”,也就是说临床相关性胰瘘(B/C级)是导致迟发性出血最重要的原因。

对于伴临床相关性胰瘘的迟发性PPH,外科处理往往非常棘手。数据显示伴临床相关性胰瘘的迟发性PPH,初始手术治疗患者的死亡率(39.0%,16/41)较早期PPH(6.1%,3/49)明显升高(P

文献报道肝脏缺乏异位肝动脉供血、门静脉阻塞或狭窄是肝动脉栓塞术后出现肝脏缺血坏死的主要危险因素[26]。因此,肝动脉栓塞术前应充分行肝脏供血动脉造影,准确评估门静脉通畅程度和侧支循环是不可或缺的步骤。与此对应的选择性栓塞GDA残端在技术上更困难和复杂,失败概率高,而且能否成功取决于GDA残端的长度而非操作的技术水平,并且也更容易再出血[14,-15,19, 20,22,27]。另外,近年来覆膜支架因其可以保留脏器正常血供,降低缺血坏死风险,已成为肝总动脉等内脏动脉主干出血的首选治疗方式之一[22];相比传统的栓塞治疗,覆膜支架的有效性、安全性及长期通畅性仍需进一步证实[22,28]。同时覆膜支架置入的难度大,技术要求高,常因术中血管开口异常或走向曲折、不能置入支架以及术后胰瘘感染持续腐蚀、支架顺应性不匹配而失败,术后再介入止血率33.4%[28]。因此应首先考虑栓塞术。

值得注意的是,如果有临床相关性胰瘘-严重腹腔感染的出血病例,即使介入栓塞成功获得暂时性止血效果,但由于导致出血的危险因素仍然存在,因而暂时性止血后,仍需及早采取措施,保持腹腔引流管通畅引流,进而有效清除腹腔感染病灶,并建立有效肠内营养通道。另一方面,手术的作用仍不能替代,如果介入治疗失败或患者出现失血性休克,或者出血来自于门静脉及其属支,或无法行介入检查的患者,则仍需手术治疗[3,5,17];此外,如果腹腔引流不通畅,介入栓塞止血后仍有假性动脉瘤再形成或再出血的可能,大多数情况下仍需要手术引流[2,3,5, 6, 7,14, 15,17]。如消化道出血量不大,介入造影阴性可行内镜检查,PD手术消化道重建使内镜操作难度大大增加,有经验的内镜医师可以尝试为寻找消化道出血部位提供线索。

(三)前哨出血的治疗决策

前哨出血是大出血的先兆表现,在PD后较为常见。一般发生在术后3 d以后,患者的腹腔引流管或鼻胃管引出少量血液或解黑便、便血、呕血,血红蛋白下降>15 g/L[2,6, 7]。对前哨出血要高度重视,每一次前哨出血都必须立刻进行检查和处理,把握战略主动,将严重的腹腔出血控制在萌芽阶段(图1)。有研究证实相较保守治疗,对前哨出血患者积极采取介入DSA治疗能减少迟发性PPH导致的死亡(病死率5.0%比30.8%)[29]。如果是腹腔出血,患者血流动力学稳定,可先行高质量的腹部CTA[6,30, 31],判断是否存在假性动脉瘤及出血位置。首选介入DSA检查和栓塞治疗。由于介入DSA存在假阴性情况,即便DSA阴性也不能保证之后不会发生大出血,应密切观察,必要时可重复行介入检查[29],有研究显示介入DSA阴性时选择经验性栓塞可显著提高止血成功率(39.6%升至61.7%)[16]。如果介入成功止血,但术区引流不彻底,或许仍需考虑一次延迟探查手术,清除腹腔感染坏死灶,改善临床性胰瘘的引流情况[5- 6,17]。如果介入失败,或介入阴性合并术区引流不通畅,则需手术治疗[5, 6,17]。如果消化道出血介入无阳性发现后可行内镜检查。

(四)PPH行再手术止血时的术式选择

发生PPH行再手术止血时,手术方式应本着“胆胰分流”的目的和“损伤控制”的原则,根据患者全身状况、组织条件、出血时间、出血的部位及严重程度、腹腔感染及胰瘘的程度综合判断,酌情处理。现阶段迟发性PPH再次手术无统一的手术方式,且死亡率较高。手术策略可具体概括为:(1)对于早期PPH、轻度的胰肠吻合口瘘,可选择出血点缝扎止血,吻合口原位修补,胰管内引流或外引流[3,5, 6, 7,13];(2)对于迟发性PPH、严重的胰肠吻合口瘘、组织及血管受腐蚀,如果患者血流动力学尚稳定、尚能耐受手术,可选择胰肠吻合口拆除,补救性胰胃或胰肠吻合[32],或残余胰腺切除术[5, 6,17];(3)若患者高龄、一般情况差、血流动力学不稳、无法耐受长时间手术,则应本着损伤控制的原则,选择行胰管外引流、胰管架桥引流、腹腔引流术,并行空肠造瘘术[6,33, 34, 35, 36, 37]。

临床相关胰瘘引起的迟发性PPH患者局部组织受胰液腐蚀严重,感染性炎症反应、粘连严重,组织脆性高、条件极差;此刻患者经历过长时间胰瘘-腹腔感染,全身状况及脏器储备很差。应秉承“No suture in PUS”的原则,建议选择胰管外引流术[6,33, 34, 35, 36, 37]。该术式简单易行,能有效降低手术创伤打击;另一方面,胰液外引流能够实现胰液与胆汁肠液的分离,配合腹腔引流管的通畅引流,能够阻断PPH发生的病理生理进程,大大降低了再出血的风险,总体统计数据显示胰腺外引流术相较残余胰腺切除术能够显著降低病死率(P=0.025),更重要的是,胰管外引流能够保留胰腺功能,成功率高,缺点有胰液丢失造成外分泌功能不全、胰管意外脱落及长期护理负担,此外该术式远期还需再次行胰肠吻合重建恢复胰腺外分泌功能,额外增加了手术相关风险。不过,对于恶性肿瘤患者,是否需要二期胰肠吻合术要充分、综合评估患者的预期生存时间、外分泌功能、一般情况、辅助治疗计划及主观意愿[35]。残余胰腺切除术虽能根治胰瘘和胰腺来源出血,但患者丧失胰腺全部内外分泌功能,术后不可避免出现脆性糖尿病和脂肪泄等长期并发症;另外,术中组织炎症水肿、粘连严重会增加残余胰腺切除过程中出血量及手术时间[5, 6, 7,35],与损伤控制原则相左。而其他保留胰腺功能的术式如一期胰肠吻合或补救性胰胃吻合因存在很大的再次胰瘘-出血风险,与“No suture in PUS”原则相背而现阶段较少应用。

二、预防PPH的措施

PPH来势凶猛且后果严重,为了有效预防“枪击中靶”——PPH的发生,必须在“子弹上膛”到“开火射击”的每一过程中都要做到有效防护,笔者总结出三位一体的联合预防策略:(1)通过胰液内引流、胰液外引流,生长抑素抑制胰液分泌,也可尝试加做胆道外引流减少胆汁激活胰酶可能性,此步骤可比作“退弹匣”;(2)通过抗感染、腹腔有效引流避免临床相关性胰瘘-严重腹腔感染,此步骤可比作“退弹膛”;(3)通过隔绝技术对于术区清扫后的裸化血管加以保护,此步骤可比作“加固掩体”。

由于胰十二指肠切除术早期出血多为技术原因,前哨出血一般也有充足的反应时间窗,因此强调胰腺外科医师一定要未雨绸缪、枕戈待旦,为PPH的预防做好充足的准备,具体措施如下:(1)围手术期通过肠内营养和肠外营养改善患者营养状态和免疫状态,纠正肝功能不全、凝血功能障碍、低蛋白血症,避免临床相关性胰瘘的发生概率。(2)鉴于PD术区是胚胎发育前肠和中肠的交会处,应时刻注意经常出现的血管解剖变异,特别是术前应清晰认识动脉变异的走行,血管变异是PPH的高危因素之一[38]。术前完善薄层增强CT或CTA,尤其注意肝动脉和胰十二指肠下动脉的变异。(3)提高术中胰腺断面及分离组织的处理技巧,确切止血;对于重要的动、静脉血管及属支结扎/缝扎做到精确处理。(4)术者应依据个体和疾病状况,胰瘘或手术风险模型“个性化”选择吻合方式。在保留吻合口血供、确保吻合口通畅、减少吻合口张力的原则基础上,“因时、因人、因病情”选择吻合方式可能较“术者凭自身经验和熟练程度”进行选择更加科学合理。笔者推荐较为安全、胰瘘风险较低的改良Blumgart技术进行导管对黏膜胰腺空肠吻合术,近期一项Meta分析显示Blumgart胰肠吻合技术能够显著降低临床相关性胰瘘的发生率(OR=0.38,95% CI:0.65~0.22;P=0.004)[39]。

另外,笔者推荐对于胰瘘高危因素患者可行胰管外引流[40],近期一篇高质量RCT研究表明胰管外引流可以显著降低胰空肠吻合胰瘘高危患者的C级胰瘘及严重并发症发生率,36例患者均未发生C级胰瘘,Clavien-Dindo Ⅲ级以上并发症发生率仅为22.2%[41]。另外一项前瞻性研究也印证了胰管外引流可以显著降低胰瘘及严重并发症发生率[42]。最新一项前瞻性研究显示胆道外引流不能减少胰瘘的发生率和严重性,胆道引流外置反而会增加胰瘘发生风险[43],因此胆道外引流预防胰瘘的安全性和有效性仍需进一步评估。PD加做Braun吻合口可降低输入襻肠襻内压力,一项Meta分析指出其能减少胃排空延迟,减少再手术率和病死率[44],与胰管外引流两者可协同减少高危患者胰瘘风险(图2)。(5)胰肠/胆肠(胃肠)吻合口周围留置腹腔引流管,不留死角,保持引流通畅;引流管尽量摆放笔直,便于堵管后更换引流;尽量采用主动引流的方式[45](图2);恪守源头控制,最大程度减少胰瘘-腹腔感染的概率。虽然胰腺术后是否放置引流及引流管拔除指征一直存在争议,但2018年一项百家美国医疗中心回顾性大宗数据显示胰腺术后放置引流组患者较未放置引流组死亡率明显下降(1.2%比2.8%;P=0.002 6)[46]。并且2018年另一项Cochrane数据库发表的一项纳入4个RCT研究共1 110例患者的Meta分析表明,胰腺术后放置引流组患者较未放置引流组90 d内死亡率下降(0.8%比4.2%),且主动引流能够小幅缩短住院时间,两组术后并发症发生率无差异[45]。(6)对于术中清扫后的裸化血管,一项回顾性研究发现用游离大网膜垫覆盖包被加以保护能显著降低PPH发生率(8.8%降至1.2%;P=0.019)[47],或用肝圆-镰状韧带覆盖包裹加以保护,一项RCT研究(7.2%降至2.0%;P=0.017)[48]证明其能显著降低PPH发生率。(7)一项RCT研究证实吻合器切割闭合后加固缝合能减少胃组织术后出血[49]。(8)关腹前检查术区有无出血,对于动脉系统,可以提升收缩压至140mmHg后检查有无出血[49];而对于门静脉系统,可以尝试阻断肝门部门静脉后检查有无出血。

三、结语

PPH是胰腺外科最常见也是最严重的并发症之一。对于PPH临床上应秉承预防为主、源头控制、早期发现、早期治疗的原则。对于早期PPH,应以手术治疗为主;对于迟发性PPH,应以介入为主,手术的作用仍不能替代。对于前哨出血,应立刻采取积极干预措施。发生PPH行再手术止血时,手术方式应本着“胆胰分流”的目的和“损伤控制”的原则酌情处理。认识及制定正确的初始治疗决策能够显著提高救治PPH的成功率;同时,优化PPH的预防措施能有效降低PPH的发生率,这些对改善患者预后具有重要而现实的意义。

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